An Essay through African American Odyssey AKA the HINE book
THE AFRICAN-

AMERICAN ODYSSEY

C OM B I N E D VOLU M E

DARLENE CLARK HINE WILLIAM C. HINE STANLEY HARROLDDARLENE CLARK HINE WILLIAM C. HINE STANLEY HARROLDARLENE CLARK HINE WILLIAM C. HINE STANLEY HARROL

SEVENTH EDITION

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ABOUT THE COVER

The National Museum of African American History and Culture opened in September 2016 and contains over 37,000 artifacts related to the African-American experience in the United States.

SEVENTH EDITION

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About the Cover The National Museum of African American History and Culture opened in September 2016 and contains over 37,000 artifacts related to the African-American experience in the United States.

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The African-American Odyssey

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COmbined VOlume Seventh Edition

The African- American Odyssey

Darlene Clark Hine Northwestern University

William C. Hine Formerly of South Carolina State University

Stanley Harrold South Carolina State University

330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hine, Darlene Clark, author. | Hine, William C., author | Harrold, Stanley, author. Title: The African-American Odyssey / Darlene Clark Hine (Northwestern University), William C. Hine (formerly of South Carolina State University), Stanley Harrold (South Carolina State University). Description: Seventh edition. | Boston : Pearson, 2016. | Includes index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016013318| ISBN 9780134483955 (combined volume) | ISBN 0134483952 (combined volume) Subjects: LCSH: African Americans. | African Americans—History. Classification: LCC E185 .H533 2016 | DDC 973/.0496073—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016013318

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dedicated to Charlyce Jones Owen

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Part I Becoming African American 2 1 Africa, ca. 6000 bce–ca. 1600 ce 4 2 Middle Passage, ca. 1450–1809 28 3 Black People in Colonial North

America, 1526–1763 55

4 Rising Expectations: African Americans and the Struggle for Independence, 1763–1783 89

5 African Americans in the New Nation, 1783–1820 113

Part II Slavery, Abolition, and the Quest for Freedom: The Coming of the Civil War, 1793–1861 144

6 Life in the Cotton Kingdom, 1793–1861 146

7 Free Black People in Antebellum America, 1820–1861 173

8 Opposition to Slavery, 1730–1833 202 9 Let Your Motto Be Resistance,

1833–1850 222

10 “And Black People Were at the Heart of It”: The United States Disunites Over Slavery, 1846–1861 245

Part III The Civil War, Emancipation, and Black Reconstruction: The Second American Revolution 276

11 Liberation: African Americans and the Civil War, 1861–1865 278

12 The Meaning of Freedom: The Promise of Reconstruction, 1865–1868 313

13 The Meaning of Freedom: The Failure of Reconstruction, 1868–1877 342

Part IV Searching for Safe Spaces 368 14 White Supremacy Triumphant:

African Americans in the Late Nineteenth Century, 1877–1895 370

15 African Americans Challenge White Supremacy, 1877–1918 401

16 Conciliation, Agitation, and Migration: African Americans in the Early Twentieth Century, 1895–1925 438

17 African Americans and the 1920s, 1918–1929 481

Part V The Great Depression and World War II 514

18 Black Protest, Great Depression, and the New Deals, 1929–1940 516

19 Meanings of Freedom: Black Culture and Society, 1930–1950 550

20 The World War II Era and the Seeds of a Revolution, 1940–1950 583

brief Contents

xi

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xii Brief Contents

Part VI The Black Revolution 618 21 The Long Freedom Movement,

1950–1970 620

22 Black Nationalism, Black Power, and Black Arts, 1965–1980 662

23 Black Politics and President Barack Obama, 1980–2016 704

24 African Americans End the Twentieth Century and Enter into the Twenty-First Century, 1980–2016 749

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Maps xxvii Figures xxix Tables xxxi Preface xxxiii About The African-American Odyssey, 7e xxxv Chapter Revision Highlights xxxvii Revel™ xxxix Documents Available in Revel™ xli Acknowledgments xlv About the Authors xlvii

Part I Becoming African American 2

1 Africa, ca. 6000 bce–ca. 1600 ce 4 1.1 A Huge and Diverse Land 5 1.2 The Birthplace of Humanity 6 1.3 Ancient Civilizations and Old Arguments 7 1.3.1 Egyptian Civilization 8

1.3.2 Nubia, Kush, Meroë, and Axum 9

1.4 West Africa 10 1.4.1 Ancient Ghana 11

VoiCes Al BAkri DesCriBes kumBi sAleh AnD GhAnA’s royAl Court 12

1.4.2 The Empire of Mali, 1230–1468 13

1.4.3 The Empire of Songhai, 1464–1591 14

1.4.4 The West African Forest Region 15 VoiCes A DesCriPtion oF Benin City 18

ProFile nzinGA mBemBA (AFonso i) oF konGo 19

1.5 Kongo and Angola 20 1.6 West African Society and Culture 20 1.6.1 Families and villages 20

1.6.2 Women 21

1.6.3 Class and Slavery 21

1.6.4 Religion 22

1.6.5 Art and Music 22

1.6.6 Literature: Oral Histories, Poetry, and Tales 23

1.6.7 Technology 23 Conclusion 24

Chapter timeline 24

review Questions 26

retracing the odyssey 26

recommended reading 26

Additional Bibliography 27

2 Middle Passage, ca. 1450–1809 28 2.1 The European Age of Exploration

and Colonization 29

2.2 The Slave Trade in Africa and the Origins of the Atlantic Slave Trade 30

2.3 Growth of the Atlantic Slave Trade 33 2.4 The African-American Ordeal from Capture

to Destination 35

2.4.1 The Crossing 36

2.4.2 The Slavers and Their Technology 37

2.4.3 A Slave’s Story 38 ProFile olAuDAh eQuiAno 39

2.4.4 A Captain’s Story 40

2.4.5 Provisions for the Middle Passage 40

2.4.6 Sanitation, Disease, and Death 41

2.4.7 Resistance and Revolt at Sea 42 VoiCes the JournAl oF A DutCh slAVer 43

2.4.8 Cruelty 44

2.4.9 African Women on Slave Ships 45 ProFile AyuBA suleimAn DiAllo oF BonDu 45

VoiCes Dysentery (or the BlooDy Flux) 46

2.5 Landing and Sale in the West Indies 47 2.6 Seasoning 48 2.7 The End of the Journey: Masters and Slaves

in the Americas 49

2.8 The Ending of the Atlantic Slave Trade 50 Conclusion 50

Chapter timeline 51

review Questions 52

retracing the odyssey 53

recommended reading 53

Additional Bibliography 53

3 Black People in Colonial North America, 1526–1763 55

3.1 The Peoples of North America 57 3.1.1 American Indians 57

3.1.2 The Spanish, French, and Dutch 58

3.1.3 The British and Jamestown 59

3.1.4 Africans Arrive in the Chesapeake 60

3.2 Black Servitude in the Chesapeake 61 ProFile Anthony Johnson 62

3.2.1 Race and the Origins of Black Slavery 62

Contents

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xiv Contents

3.2.2 The Legal Recognition of Chattel Slavery 63

3.2.3 Bacon’s Rebellion and American Slavery 64

3.3 Plantation Slavery, 1700–1750 64 3.3.1 Tobacco Colonies 64

3.3.2 Low-Country Slavery 66 VoiCes A DesCriPtion oF An eiGhteenth- Century VirGiniA PlAntAtion 68

3.3.3 Plantation Technology 69

3.4 Slave Life in Early America 69 3.5 Miscegenation and Creolization 70 3.6 The Origins of African-American Culture 71 3.6.1 The Great Awakening 73

3.6.2 Language, Music, and Folk Literature 74 VoiCes Poem By JuPiter hAmmon 75

3.6.3 The African-American Impact on Colonial Culture 75

3.7 Slavery in the Northern Colonies 76 3.8 Slavery in Spanish Florida and

French Louisiana 77

3.9 African Americans in New Spain’s Northern Borderlands 78

3.10 Black Women in Colonial America 79 3.11 Black Resistance and Rebellion 81

ProFile FrAnCisCo menenDez 83

Conclusion 83

Chapter timeline 84

review Questions 85

retracing the odyssey 85

recommended reading 85

Additional Bibliography 86

4 Rising Expectations: African Americans and the Struggle for Independence, 1763–1783 89

4.1 The Crisis of the British Empire 91 4.2 The Declaration of Independence

and African Americans 93 ProFile CrisPus AttuCks 94

4.2.1 The Impact of the Enlightenment 95

4.2.2 African Americans in the Revolutionary Debate 95

4.3 The Black Enlightenment 96 VoiCes Boston’s slAVes link their FreeDom to AmeriCAn liBerty 97

4.3.1 Phillis Wheatley and Poetry 98

4.3.2 Benjamin Banneker and Science 98 VoiCes Phillis WheAtley on liBerty AnD nAturAl riGhts 99

4.4 African Americans in the War for Independence 100

4.4.1 Black Loyalists 101

4.4.2 Black Patriots 102

4.5 The Revolution and Emancipation 104 4.5.1 The Revolutionary Impact 105

4.5.2 The Revolutionary Promise 107 Conclusion 108

Chapter timeline 109

review Questions 110

retracing the odyssey 111

recommended reading 111

Additional Bibliography 111

5 African Americans in the New Nation, 1783–1820 113

5.1 Forces for Freedom 115 5.1.1 Northern Emancipation 115

5.1.2 The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 118

5.1.3 Antislavery Societies in the North and the Upper South 119

ProFile elizABeth FreemAn 120

5.1.4 Manumission and Self-Purchase 121

5.1.5 The Emergence of a Free Black Class in the South 121

5.2 Forces for Slavery 122 5.2.1 The U.S. Constitution 122

5.2.2 Cotton 124

5.2.3 The Louisiana Purchase and African Americans in the Lower Mississippi valley 124

5.2.4 Conservatism and Racism 125

5.3 The Emergence of Free Black Communities 126

5.3.1 The Origins of Independent Black Churches 127

VoiCes riChArD Allen on the BreAk With st. GeorGe’s ChurCh 128

5.3.2 The First Black Schools 129

5.4 Black Leaders and Choices 130 VoiCes ABsAlom Jones Petitions ConGress on BehAlF oF FuGitiVes FACinG reenslAVement 130

ProFile JAmes Forten 132

5.4.1 Migration 133

5.4.2 Slave Uprisings 133

5.4.3 The White Southern Reaction 135

5.5 The War of 1812 135 5.6 The Missouri Compromise 137

Conclusion 138

Chapter timeline 139

review Questions 140

retracing the odyssey 141

recommended reading 141

Additional Bibliography 141 ?? ?ConneCtinG the PAst the GreAt AWAkeninG

AnD the BlACk ChurCh 142

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Contents xv

Part II Slavery, Abolition, and the Quest for Freedom: The Coming of the Civil War, 1793–1861 144

6 Life in the Cotton Kingdom, 1793–1861 146

6.1 The Expansion of Slavery 147 6.1.1 Slave Population Growth 148

6.1.2 Ownership of Slaves in the Old South 149

6.2 Slave Labor in Agriculture 150 6.2.1 Tobacco 150

ProFile solomon northuP 151

6.2.2 Rice 152

6.2.3 Sugar 153

6.2.4 Cotton 153

6.2.5 Cotton and Technology 154

6.2.6 Other Crops 155

6.3 House Servants and Skilled Slaves 156 6.3.1 Urban and Industrial Slavery 156

6.4 Punishment 158 VoiCes FreDeriCk DouGlAss on the reADiness oF mAsters to use the WhiP 159

6.5 The Domestic Slave Trade 159 6.6 Slave Families 160

ProFile WilliAm ellison 161

6.6.1 Children 162 VoiCes A slAVeholDer DesCriBes A neW PurChAse 162

6.6.2 Sexual Exploitation 163

6.6.3 Diet 164

6.6.4 Clothing 165

6.6.5 Health 166

6.7 The Socialization of Slaves 166 6.7.1 Religion 167

6.8 The Character of Slavery and Slaves 168 Conclusion 169

Chapter timeline 169

review Questions 170

retracing the odyssey 171

recommended reading 171

Additional Bibliography 171

7 Free Black People in Antebellum America, 1820–1861 173

7.1 Demographics of Freedom 175 7.2 The Jacksonian Era 176 7.3 Limited Freedom in the North 179

7.3.1 Black Laws 179

7.3.2 Disfranchisement 181

7.3.3 Segregation 182

7.4 Black Communities in the Urban North 183 7.4.1 The Black Family 184

7.4.2 Poverty 184

7.4.3 The Northern Black Elite 185

7.4.4 Inventors 185 VoiCes mAriA W. steWArt on the ConDition oF BlACk Workers 186

7.4.5 Professionals 186 ProFile stePhen smith AnD WilliAm WhiPPer, PArtners in Business AnD reForm 187

7.4.6 Artists and Musicians 188

7.4.7 Authors 188

7.5 African-American Institutions 189 7.5.1 Churches 189

7.5.2 Schools 191 VoiCes the Constitution oF the PittsBurGh AFriCAn eDuCAtion soCiety 191

7.5.3 voluntary Associations 192

7.6 Free African Americans in the Upper South 193

7.6.1 Free African Americans in the Deep South 196

7.6.2 Free African Americans in the Far West 197 Conclusion 198

Chapter timeline 198

review Questions 199

retracing the odyssey 200

recommended reading 200

Additional Bibliography 200

8 Opposition to Slavery, 1730–1833 202

8.1 Antislavery Begins in America 203 8.1.1 From Gabriel to Denmark vesey 204

8.2 The Path toward a More Radical Antislavery Movement 206

8.2.1 Slavery and Politics 207

8.2.2 The Second Great Awakening 208

8.2.3 The Benevolent Empire 209

8.3 Colonization 209 8.3.1 African-American Advocates

of Colonization 210

8.3.2 Black Opposition to Colonization 211 VoiCes WilliAm WAtkins oPPoses ColonizAtion 212

8.4 Black Abolitionist Women 212 ProFile mAriA W. steWArt 213

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xvi Contents

8.4.1 The Baltimore Alliance 214 VoiCes A BlACk WomAn sPeAks out on the riGht to eDuCAtion 214

8.5 David Walker and Nat Turner 215 ProFile DAViD WAlker 216

Conclusion 218

Chapter timeline 219

review Questions 220

retracing the odyssey 220

recommended reading 220

Additional Bibliography 221

9 Let Your Motto Be Resistance, 1833–1850 222

9.1 A Rising Tide of Racism and violence 223 9.1.1 Antiblack and Antiabolitionist

Riots 224

9.1.2 Texas and the War against Mexico 225

9.2 The Antislavery Movement 226 9.2.1 The American Anti-Slavery Society 226

9.2.2 Black and Women’s Antislavery Societies 227

ProFile soJourner truth 228

9.2.3 Moral Suasion 229

9.3 Black Community Support 230 9.3.1 The Black Convention Movement 230

9.3.2 Black Churches in the Antislavery Cause 231

9.3.3 Black Newspapers 231 VoiCes FreDeriCk DouGlAss DesCriBes An AWkWArD situAtion 232

9.4 The American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society and the Liberty Party 232

ProFile henry hiGhlAnD GArnet 233

9.5 A More Aggressive Abolitionism 234 9.5.1 The Amistad and the Creole 235

9.5.2 The Underground Railroad 235

9.5.3 Technology and the Underground Railroad 237

9.5.4 Canada West 237

9.6 Black Militancy 238 9.6.1 Frederick Douglass 238

9.6.2 Revival of Black Nationalism 239 VoiCes mArtin r. DelAny DesCriBes his Vision oF A BlACk nAtion 240

Conclusion 241

Chapter timeline 242

review Questions 242

retracing the odyssey 243

recommended reading 243

Additional Bibliography 243

10 “And Black People Were at the Heart of It”: The United States Disunites Over Slavery, 1846–1861 245

10.1 The Lure of the West 247 10.1.1 Free Labor versus Slave Labor 247

10.1.2 The Wilmot Proviso 247

10.1.3 African Americans and the Gold Rush 248

10.1.4 California and the Compromise of 1850 249

10.1.5 Fugitive Slave Laws 249 VoiCes AFriCAn AmeriCAns resPonD to the FuGitiVe slAVe lAW 251

10.2 Fugitive Slaves 252 10.2.1 William and Ellen Craft 253

ProFile mAry ellen PleAsAnt 253

10.2.2 Shadrach Minkins 254

10.2.3 The Battle at Christiana 254

10.2.4 Anthony Burns 255

10.2.5 Margaret Garner 255 ProFile thomAs sims, A FuGitiVe slAVe 256

10.2.6 Freedom in Canada 257

10.2.7 The Rochester Convention, 1853 257

10.2.8 Nativism and the Know-Nothings 257

10.2.9 Uncle Tom’s Cabin 258

10.2.10 The Kansas-Nebraska Act 259

10.2.11 Preston Brooks Attacks Charles Sumner 260

10.3 The Dred Scott Decision 261 10.3.1 Questions for the Court 261

10.3.2 Reaction to the Dred Scott Decision 262

10.3.3 White Northerners and Black Americans 263

10.3.4 The Lincoln–Douglas Debates 263

10.3.5 Abraham Lincoln and Black People 263 ProFile mArtin DelAny 264

10.4 John Brown and the Raid on Harpers Ferry 265

10.4.1 Planning the Raid 265

10.4.2 The Raid 266

10.4.3 The Reaction 266

10.5 The Election of Abraham Lincoln 267 10.5.1 Black People Respond to Lincoln’s

Election 268

10.5.2 Disunion 268 Conclusion 270

Chapter timeline 270

review Questions 272

retracing the odyssey 272

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Contents xvii

recommended reading 272

Additional Bibliography 273 ?? ?ConneCtinG the PAst Narrative

of the Life of frederick dougLass AnD BlACk AutoBioGrAPhy 274

Part III The Civil War, Emancipation, and Black Reconstruction: The Second American Revolution 276

11 Liberation: African Americans and the Civil War, 1861–1865 278

11.1 Lincoln’s Aims 280 11.2 Black Men volunteer and Are Rejected 280 11.2.1 Union Policies toward Confederate

Slaves 280

11.2.2 “Contraband” 281

11.2.3 Lincoln’s Initial Position 282

11.2.4 Lincoln Moves toward Emancipation 282

11.2.5 Lincoln Delays Emancipation 283

11.2.6 Black People Reject Colonization 283

11.2.7 The Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation 284

11.2.8 Northern Reaction to Emancipation 284

11.2.9 Political Opposition to Emancipation 285

11.3 The Emancipation Proclamation 285 11.3.1 Limits of the Proclamation 286

11.3.2 Effects of the Proclamation on the South 287 ProFile elizABeth keCkley 288

11.4 Black Men Fight for the Union 289 11.4.1 The First South Carolina volunteers 289

11.4.2 The Louisiana Native Guards 291

11.4.3 The Second South Carolina volunteers 291

11.4.4 The 54th Massachusetts Regiment 292

11.4.5 Black Soldiers Confront Discrimination 293

11.4.6 Black Men in Combat 294

11.4.7 The Assault on Battery Wagner 294 VoiCes leWis DouGlAss DesCriBes the FiGhtinG At BAttery WAGner 296

11.4.8 Olustee 296

11.4.9 The Crater 296

11.4.10 The Confederate Reaction to Black Soldiers 296

11.4.11 The Abuse and Murder of Black Troops 297

11.4.12 The Fort Pillow Massacre 297

11.4.13 Black Men in the Union Navy 298 VoiCes A BlACk nurse on the horrors oF WAr AnD the sACriFiCe oF BlACk solDiers 298

11.4.14 Liberators, Spies, and Guides 299 ProFile hArriet tuBmAn 300

11.4.15 violent Opposition to Black People 301

11.4.16 Union Troops and Slaves 302

11.4.17 Refugees 302

11.5 Black People and the Confederacy 302 11.5.1 Skilled and Unskilled Slaves

in Southern Industry 302

11.5.2 The Impressment of Black People 303

11.5.3 Confederates Enslave Free Black People 303

11.5.4 Black Confederates 304

11.5.5 Personal Servants 304

11.5.6 Black Men Fighting for the South 305

11.5.7 Black Opposition to the Confederacy 306

11.5.8 The Confederate Debate on Black Troops 306 Conclusion 308

Chapter timeline 308

review Questions 310

retracing the odyssey 310

recommended reading 310

Additional Bibliography 311

12 The Meaning of Freedom: The Promise of Reconstruction, 1865–1868 313

12.1 The End of Slavery 314 12.1.1 Differing Reactions of Former Slaves 315

12.1.2 Reuniting Black Families 315

12.2 Land 316 12.2.1 Special Field Order #15 316

12.2.2 The Port Royal Experiment 317

12.2.3 The Freedmen’s Bureau 317

12.2.4 Southern Homestead Act 319 VoiCes JourDon AnDerson’s letter to his Former mAster 319

12.2.5 Sharecropping 320

12.2.6 The Black Church 320 VoiCes A FreeDmen’s BureAu Commissioner tells FreeD PeoPle WhAt FreeDom meAns 322

12.2.7 Class and Status 323

12.3 Education 324 12.3.1 Black Teachers 325

12.3.2 Black Colleges 326

12.3.3 Response of White Southerners 326

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xviii Contents

ProFile ChArlotte e. rAy 327

VoiCes A northern BlACk WomAn on teAChinG FreeDmen 327

12.4 violence 328 12.4.1 The Crusade for Political

and Civil Rights 329

12.5 Presidential Reconstruction under Andrew Johnson 329

12.5.1 Black Codes 330

12.5.2 Black Conventions 330

12.5.3 The Radical Republicans 331

12.5.4 Radical Proposals 332

12.5.5 The Freedmen’s Bureau Bill and the Civil Rights Bill 332

12.5.6 Johnson’s vetoes 332 ProFile AAron A. BrADley 333

12.5.7 The Fourteenth Amendment 334

12.5.8 Radical Reconstruction 335

12.5.9 Universal Manhood Suffrage 335

12.5.10 Black Politics 335

12.5.11 Sit-Ins and Strikes 336

12.5.12 The Reaction of White Southerners 336 Conclusion 337

Chapter timeline 337

review Questions 339

retracing the odyssey 339

recommended reading 339

Additional Bibliography 340

13 The Meaning of Freedom: The Failure of Reconstruction, 1868–1877 342

13.1 Constitutional Conventions 343 13.1.1 Elections 344

13.1.2 Black Political Leaders 344 ProFile the GiBBs Brothers 345

13.2 The Issues 346 13.2.1 Education and Social Welfare 346

13.2.2 Civil Rights 347

13.2.3 Economic Issues 348

13.2.4 Land 348

13.2.5 Business and Industry 348

13.2.6 Black Politicians: An Evaluation 349

13.2.7 Republican Factionalism 349

13.2.8 Opposition 349 ProFile the rollin sisters 350

13.3 The Ku Klux Klan 351 VoiCes An APPeAl For helP AGAinst the klAn 353

13.3.1 The West 354

13.4 The Fifteenth Amendment 354 13.4.1 The Enforcement Acts 355

13.4.2 The North and Reconstruction 355

13.4.3 The Freedmen’s Bank 356

13.4.4 The Civil Rights Act of 1875 356 VoiCes BlACk leADers suPPort the PAssAGe oF A CiVil riGhts ACt 357

13.5 The End of Reconstruction 358 13.5.1 violent Redemption and the

Colfax Massacre 358

13.5.2 The Shotgun Policy 359

13.5.3 The Hamburg Massacre and the Ellenton Riot 359

13.5.4 The “Compromise” of 1877 360 Conclusion 361

Chapter timeline 362

review Questions 363

retracing the odyssey 364

recommended reading 364

Additional Bibliography 364 ?? ?ConneCtinG the PAst VotinG

AnD PolitiCs 366

Part IV Searching for Safe Spaces 368

14 White Supremacy Triumphant: African Americans in the Late Nineteenth Century, 1877–1895 370

14.1 Politics 372 14.1.1 Black Congressmen 373

14.1.2 Democrats and Farmer Discontent 373

14.1.3 The Colored Farmers’ Alliance 375

14.1.4 The Populist Party 375

14.2 Disfranchisement 376 14.2.1 Evading the Fifteenth Amendment 376

14.2.2 Mississippi 377

14.2.3 South Carolina 377

14.2.4 The Grandfather Clause 377

14.2.5 The “Force Bill” 378

14.3 Segregation 379 14.3.1 Jim Crow 379

14.3.2 Segregation on the Railroads 379

14.3.3 Plessy v. Ferguson 380

14.3.4 Streetcar Segregation 380

14.3.5 Segregation Proliferates 381 VoiCes mAJority AnD DissentinG oPinions on PLessy v. fergusoN 381

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Contents xix

14.3.6 Racial Etiquette 382

14.4 violence 382 14.4.1 Washington County, Texas 382

14.4.2 The Phoenix Riot 383

14.4.3 The Wilmington Riot 383

14.4.4 The New Orleans Riot 383

14.4.5 Lynching 384

14.4.6 Rape 385

14.4.7 Migration 385 ProFile iDA Wells BArnett 385

14.4.8 The Liberian Exodus 387

14.4.9 The Exodusters 387

14.4.10 Migration within the South 389

14.4.11 Black Farm Families 389

14.4.12 Cultivating Cotton 390

14.4.13 Sharecroppers 391 VoiCes CAsh AnD DeBt For the BlACk Cotton FArmer 392

14.4.14 Black Landowners 392

14.4.15 White Resentment of Black Success 393

14.5 African Americans and the Legal System 393 14.5.1 Segregated Justice 393

ProFile Johnson C. WhittAker 395

14.5.2 The Convict Lease System: Slavery by Another Name 395 Conclusion 396

Chapter timeline 397

review Questions 398

retracing the odyssey 398

recommended reading 398

Additional Bibliography 399

15 African Americans Challenge White Supremacy, 1877–1918 401

15.1 Social Darwinism 403 15.2 Education and Schools: The Issues 403 15.2.1 Segregated Schools 404

15.2.2 The Hampton Model 405

15.2.3 Booker T. Washington and the Tuskegee Model 405

15.2.4 Critics of the Tuskegee Model 407 VoiCes thomAs e. miller AnD the mission oF the BlACk lAnD-GrAnt ColleGe 408

15.3 Church and Religion 408 15.3.1 The Church as Solace and Escape 410

15.3.2 The Holiness Movement and the Pentecostal Church 410

15.3.3 Roman Catholics and Episcopalians 411 ProFile henry mCneAl turner 412

15.4 Red versus Black: The Buffalo Soldiers 413 15.4.1 Discrimination in the Army 413

15.4.2 The Buffalo Soldiers in Combat 414

15.4.3 Civilian Hostility to Black Soldiers 415

15.4.4 Brownsville 416

15.4.5 African Americans in the Navy 416

15.4.6 The Black Cowboys 416

15.4.7 The Black Cowgirls 417

15.4.8 The Spanish-American War 417

15.4.9 Black Officers 418

15.4.10 “A Splendid Little War” 419 VoiCes BlACk men in BAttle in CuBA 419

15.5 African Americans and Their Role in the American Economy 421

15.5.1 African Americans and the World’s Columbian Exposition 421

15.5.2 Obstacles and Opportunities for Employment among African Americans 422

15.5.3 African Americans and Labor 423

15.5.4 Black Professionals 424 ProFile mAGGie lenA WAlker 425

15.5.5 Music 427 ProFile A mAn AnD his horse: Dr. WilliAm key AnD BeAutiFul Jim key 427

15.5.6 Sports 430 Conclusion 432

Chapter timeline 433

review Questions 434

retracing the odyssey 435

recommended reading 435

Additional Bibliography 436

16 Conciliation, Agitation, and Migration: African Americans in the Early Twentieth Century, 1895–1925 438

16.1 Booker T. Washington’s Approach 440 16.1.1 Washington’s Influence 441

16.1.2 The Tuskegee Machine 442

16.1.3 Opposition to Washington 443

16.2 W. E. B. Du Bois 443 VoiCes W. e. B. Du Bois on BeinG BlACk in AmeriCA 444

16.2.1 The Du Bois Critique of Washington 444

16.2.2 The Souls of Black Folk 445

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xx Contents

16.2.3 The Talented Tenth 446

16.2.4 The Niagara Movement 446

16.2.5 The NAACP 447

16.2.6 Using the …

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