Material Science Essay
10th Edition

Materials Science and Engineering

AN INTRODUCTION

WILLIAM D. CALLISTER, JR. Department of Metallurgical Engineering

The University of Utah

DAVID G. RETHWISCH Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering

The University of Iowa

Front Cover: Representation of a (110) plane for barium titanate (BaTiO3), which has the perovskite crystal structure. Red, purple, and green spheres represent, respectively, oxygen, barium, and titanium ions. Back Cover: Depiction of a (123) plane for sodium chloride (NaCl), which has the rock salt crystal structure. Green and brown spheres denote chlorine and sodium ions, respectively.

VICE PRESIDENT AND DIRECTOR Laurie Rosatone ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Linda Ratts DEVELOPMENT EDITOR Adria Giattino EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Adriana Alecci MARKETING MANAGER John LaVacca SENIOR PRODUCT DESIGNER Tom Kulesa PRODUCTION EDITOR Ashley Patterson SENIOR CONTENT MANAGER Valerie Zaborski SENIOR PHOTO EDITOR MaryAnn Price COVER DESIGNER Tom Nery COVER ART Roy Wiemann and William D. Callister, Jr.

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Names: Callister, William D., Jr., 1940- author. | Rethwisch, David G., author. Title: Materials science and engineering : an introduction / by William D. Callister, Department of Metallurgical Engineering, The University of Utah, David G. Rethwisch, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, The University of Iowa.

Description: 10th edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2017029444 (print) | LCCN 2017032239 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119405498 (Enhanced epub) | ISBN 9781119405436 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119405399 (loose leaf print companion) | ISBN 9781119405405 (evalc (paper)) Subjects: LCSH: Materials. | Materials science—Textbooks. Classification: LCC TA403 (ebook) | LCC TA403 .C23 2018 (print) | DDC 620.1/1—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017029444

ISBN-13: 9781119321590

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions
Dedicated to the memory of Peter Joseph Rethwisch

Father, lumberman, and friend

In this tenth edition we have retained the objectives and approaches for teaching materials science and engineering that were presented in previous editions. These objec- tives are as follows:

• Present the basic fundamentals on a level appropriate for university/college students.

• Present the subject matter in a logical order, from the simple to the more complex.

• If a topic or concept is worth treating, then it is worth treating in sufficient detail and to the extent that students have the opportunity to fully understand it without having to consult other sources.

• Inclusion of features in the book that expedite the learning process, to include the following: photographs/illustrations; learning objectives; “Why Study . . .” and “Materials of Importance” items; “Concept Check” questions; questions and problems; Answers to Selected Problems; summary tables containing key equations and equation symbols; and a glossary (for easy reference).

• Employment of new instructional technologies to enhance the teaching and learning processes.

New/Revised Content This new edition contains a number of new sections, as well as revisions/amplifications of other sections. These include the following:

• New discussions on the Materials Paradigm and Materials Selection (Ashby) Charts (Chapter 1)

• Revision of Design Example 8.1—“Materials Specification for a Pressurized Cylindrical Tank” (Chapter 8)

• New discussions on 3D printing (additive manufacturing)—Chapter 11 (metals), Chapter 13 (ceramics), and Chapter 15 (polymers)

• New discussions on biomaterials—Chapter 11 (metals), Chapter 13 (ceramics), and Chapter 15 (polymers)

• New section on polycrystalline diamond (Chapter 13)

• Revised discussion on the Hall effect (Chapter 18)

• Revised/expanded discussion on recycling issues in materials science and engineering (Chapter 22)

• All homework problems requiring computations have been refreshed

BOOK VERSIONS There are three versions of this textbook as follows:

• Digital (for purchase)—formatted as print; contains entire content

Preface

• v

vi • Preface

• Digital (in WileyPLUS)—formatted by section; contains entire content

• Abridged Print (Companion)—binder ready form; problem statements omitted

ONLINE RESOURCES Associated with the textbook are online learning resources, which are available to both students and instructors. These resources are found on three websites: (1) WileyPLUS, (2) a Student Companion Site, and (3) an Instructor Companion Site.

WileyPLUS (www.wileyplus.com) WileyPLUS is a research-based online environment for effective teaching and learning. It builds students’ confidence by taking the guesswork out of studying by providing them with a clear roadmap: what is assigned, what is required for each assignment, and whether assign- ments are done correctly. Independent research has shown that students using WileyPLUS will take more initiative so the instructor has a greater impact on their achievement in the classroom and beyond. WileyPLUS also helps students study and progress at a pace that’s right for them. Our integrated resources–available 24/7–function like a personal tutor, di- rectly addressing each student’s demonstrated needs by providing specific problem-solving techniques.

What do students receive with WileyPLUS? They can browse the following WileyPLUS resources by chapter.

• The Complete Digital Textbook (at a savings up to 60% of the cost of the in-print text). Each chapter is organized and accessed by section (and end-of-chapter elements). (Found under Read, Study & Practice/CONTENTS/Select Chapter Number/CHAPTER RESOURCES/Reading Content.)

• Virtual Materials Science and Engineering (VMSE). This web-based software package consists of interactive simulations and animations that enhance the learning of key concepts in materials science and engineering. Included in VMSE are eight modules and a materials properties/cost database. Titles of these modules are as follows: (1) Metallic Crystal Structures and Crystallography; (2) Ceramic Crystal Structures; (3) Repeat Unit and Polymer Structures; (4) Dislocations; (5) Phase Diagrams; (6) Diffusion; (7) Tensile Tests; and (8) Solid-Solution Strengthening. (Found under Read, Study & Practice.)

• Tutorial (“Muddiest Point”) Videos. These videos (narrated by a student) help students with concepts that are difficult to understand and with solving troublesome problems. (Found under Read, Study & Practice.)

• Library of Case Studies. One way to demonstrate principles of design in an engineering curriculum is via case studies: analyses of problem-solving strategies applied to real-world examples of applications/devices/failures encountered by engineers. Six case studies are provided as follows: (1) Materials Selection for a Torsionally Stressed Cylindrical Shaft; (2) Automobile Valve Spring; (3) Failure of an Automobile Rear Axle; (4) Artificial Total Hip Replacement; (5) Intraocular Lens Implants; and (6) Chemical Protective Clothing. (Found under Read, Study & Practice.)

• Mechanical Engineering (ME) Online Module. This module treats materials science/engineering topics not covered in the printed text that are relevant to mechanical engineering. (Found under Read, Study & Practice.)

• Flash Cards. A set of flash-cards has been generated for most chapters. These can be used in drills to memorize definitions of terms. (Found under Read, Study & Practice/CONTENTS/Select Chapter Number/CHAPTER RESOURCES/ Flashcards.)

Preface • vii

• Extended Learning Objectives. This is a more extensive list of learning objectives than is provided at the beginning of each chapter. These direct the student to study the subject material to a greater depth. (Found under Read, Study & Practice/ CONTENTS/Select Chapter Number/CHAPTER RESOURCES/Extended Learning Objectives.)

• Student Lecture Notes. These slides (in PowerPoint and PDF formats) are virtually identical to the lecture slides provided to an instructor for use in the classroom. The student set has been designed to allow for note taking on printouts. (Found under Read, Study & Practice/CONTENTS/Select Chapter Number/CHAPTER RESOURCES/Student Lecture Notes.)

• Answers to Concept Check questions. Students can visit the web site to find the correct answers to the Concept Check questions posed in the textbook. (Found under Read, Study & Practice/CONTENTS/Select Chapter Number/PRACTICE/ Concept Check Questions/Concept Check Number/Show Solution.)

• Online Self-Assessment Exercises. A set of questions and problems for each chapter that are similar to those found in the text. An answer to each problem/question entered by the student is assessed as either correct or incorrect, after which both the solution and answer are provided. (Found under Read, Study & Practice/CONTENTS/ Select Chapter Number/PRACTICE/Practice Questions and Problems.)

• Math Skills Review. This is a tutorial that includes instructions on how to solve a variety of mathematical equations, some of which appear in the homework problems. Examples are also provided. (Found under Read, Study & Practice/ CONTENTS/Chapter 22.)

What do instructors receive with WileyPLUS? WileyPLUS provides reliable, customizable resources that reinforce course goals inside and outside of the classroom as well as visibility into individual student progress. Prepared materials and activities help instructors optimize their time.

The same resources are provided as are found for students as noted above.

The opportunity to pre-prepare activities, including:

• Questions

• Readings and resources

• Presentations

Course materials and assessment content:

• Complete set of Lecture PowerPoint slides (or Lecture Notes). (Found under Prepare & Present/Resources/Select Chapter Number/All Sources/Instructor Resources/PowerPoint/GO/Lecture Notes.)

• Image Gallery. Digital repository of images from the text that instructors may use to generate their own PowerPoint slides. (Found under Prepare & Present/ Resources/Select Chapter Number/All Sources/Instructor Resources/PowerPoint/ GO/Image Gallery.)

• Solutions Manual (Textbook). The manuals contain solutions/answers for all problems/questions in the textbook. (Found under Prepare & Present/Resources/ Select Chapter Number/All Sources/Instructor Resources/Document/GO/Chapter Solutions Manual.)

• Solutions Manual (ME Online Module). (Found under Prepare & Present/ Resources/Mechanical Engineering Module/All Sources/Instructor Resources/ Document/GO/Solutions for ME Module.)

viii • Preface

• Solutions Manual (Library of Case Studies). (Found under Prepare & Present/ Resources/Select Any Chapter/All Sources/Instructor Resources/Document/GO/ Solutions to the Library Case Studies/Word or PDF.)

• Problem Conversion Guide. This guide correlates homework problems/questions between the previous and current textbook editions. (Found under Prepare & Present/Resources/Select Any Chapter/All Sources/Instructor Resources/ Document/GO/Problem Conversion Guide: 9th edition to 10th edition.)

• Problems/Questions. Selected problems coded algorithmically with hints, links to text, whiteboard/show work feature and instructor controlled problem solving help. [Found under Assignment/Questions/Select Chapter Number/Select Section Number (or All Sections)/Select Level (or All Levels)/All Sources/GO.]

• Answers to Concept Check Questions. (Found under Assignment/Questions/Select Chapter Number/All Sections/All Levels/All Sources/GO/Question Name.)

• List of Classroom Demonstrations and Laboratory Experiments. These demos and experiments portray phenomena and/or illustrate principles that are discussed in the book; references are also provided that give more detailed accounts of them. (Found under Prepare & Present/Resources/Select Any Chapter/All Sources/ Instructor Resources/All File Types/GO/Experiments and Classroom Demonstrations.)

• Suggested Course Syllabi for the Various Engineering Disciplines. Instructors may consult these syllabi for guidance in course/lecture organization and planning. (Found under Prepare & Present/Resources/Select Any Chapter/All Sources/ Instructor Resources/All File Types/GO/Sample Syllabi.)

• Gradebook. WileyPLUS provides instant access to reports on trends in class performance, student use of course materials and progress towards learning objectives, helping inform decisions and drive classroom discussions. (Found under Gradebook.)

STUDENT AND INSTRUCTOR COMPANION SITES (www.wiley.com/college/callister) For introductory materials science and engineering courses that do not use WileyPLUS, print and digital (for purchase) versions of the book are available. In addition, online resources may be accessed on a Student Companion Site (for students) and an Instructor Companion Site (for instructors). Some, but not all of the WileyPLUS resources are found on these two sites.

The following resources may be accessed on the STUDENT COMPANION SITE:

• Student Lecture PowerPoint Slides

• Answers to Concept Check Questions

• Extended Learning Objectives

• Mechanical Engineering (ME) Online Module

• Math Skills Review

Whereas for the INSTRUCTOR COMPANION SITE the following resources are available:

• Solutions Manuals (in PDF and Word formats)

• Answers to Concept Check Questions

• Problem Conversion Guide

• Complete Set of Lecture PowerPoint Slides

• Extended Learning Objectives

Preface • ix

• Image Gallery.

• Mechanical Engineering (ME) Online Module

• Solutions to Problems in the ME Online Module

• Suggested Syllabi for the Introductory Materials Course

• Math Skills Review

We have a sincere interest in meeting the needs of educators and students in the materi- als science and engineering community, and therefore solicit feedback on this edition. Comments, suggestions, and criticisms may be submitted to the authors via email at the fol- lowing address: [email protected].

Since we undertook the task of writing this and previous editions, instructors and students, too numerous to mention, have shared their input and contributions on how to make this work more effective as a teaching and learning tool. To all those who have helped, we express our sincere thanks.

We express our appreciation to those who have made contributions to this edition. We are especially indebted to the following for their feedback and suggestions for this edition:

• Eric Hellstrom of Florida State University

• Marc Fry and Hannah Melia of Granta Design

• Dr. Carl Wood

• Norman E. Dowling of Virginia Tech

• Tristan J. Tayag of Texas Christian University

• Jong-Sook Lee of Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Korea

We are also indebted to Linda Ratts, Executive Editor; Agie Sznajdrowicz, Project Manager; Adria Giattino, Associate Development Editor; Adriana Alecci, Editorial Assistant; Jen Devine, Permissions Manager; Ashley Patterson, Production Editor; and MaryAnn Price, Senior Photo Editor.

Last, but certainly not least, we deeply and sincerely appreciate the continual encouragement and support of our families and friends.

William D. Callister, Jr. David G. Rethwisch September 2017

Feedback

Acknowledgments

Contents

LIST OF SYMBOLS xix

1. Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and

Engineering? 5 Case Study—Liberty Ship Failures 6 1.4 Classification of Materials 7 Case Study—Carbonated Beverage

Containers 12 1.5 Advanced Materials 14 1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 16

Summary 17 References 18

2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 19

Learning Objectives 20 2.1 Introduction 20

ATOMIC STRUCTURE 20

2.2 Fundamental Concepts 20 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 22 2.4 The Periodic Table 28

ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 30

2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 30 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 32 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals

Bonding 39 Materials of Importance—Water (Its

Volume Expansion Upon Freezing) 42 2.8 Mixed Bonding 43 2.9 Molecules 44 2.10 Bonding Type-Material Classification

Correlations 44 Summary 45 Equation Summary 46 List of Symbols 46

Important Terms and Concepts 46 References 47

3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 48

Learning Objectives 49 3.1 Introduction 49

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 49

3.2 Fundamental Concepts 49 3.3 Unit Cells 50 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 51 3.5 Density Computations 57 3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 57 Material of Importance—Tin (Its

Allotropic Transformation) 58 3.7 Crystal Systems 59

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 61

3.8 Point Coordinates 61 3.9 Crystallographic Directions 64 3.10 Crystallographic Planes 70 3.11 Linear and Planar Densities 76 3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 77

CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 79

3.13 Single Crystals 79 3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 79 3.15 Anisotropy 81 3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of

Crystal Structures 82 3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 87

Summary 88 Equation Summary 90 List of Symbols 90 Important Terms and Concepts 91 References 91

4. Imperfections in Solids 92

Learning Objectives 93 4.1 Introduction 93

• xi

xii • Contents

POINT DEFECTS 93

4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 93 4.3 Impurities in Solids 95 4.4 Specification of Composition 98

MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 102

4.5 Dislocations—Linear Defects 102 4.6 Interfacial Defects 105 Materials of Importance—Catalysts (and

Surface Defects) 108 4.7 Bulk or Volume Defects 109 4.8 Atomic Vibrations 109

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 110

4.9 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 110 4.10 Microscopic Techniques 111 4.11 Grain-Size Determination 115

Summary 118 Equation Summary 119 List of Symbols 120 Important Terms and Concepts 120 References 120

5. Diffusion 121

Learning Objectives 122 5.1 Introduction 122 5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 123 5.3 Fick’s First Law 124 5.4 Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State

Diffusion 126 5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 130 5.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting

Materials 135 Materials of Importance—Aluminum

for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 138

5.7 Other Diffusion Paths 139 Summary 139 Equation Summary 140 List of Symbols 141 Important Terms and Concepts 141 References 141

6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 142

Learning Objectives 143 6.1 Introduction 143 6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 144

ELASTIC DEFORMATION 148

6.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 148 6.4 Anelasticity 151 6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 151

PLASTIC DEFORMATION 154

6.6 Tensile Properties 154 6.7 True Stress and Strain 161 6.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic

Deformation 164 6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional

Deformations 165 6.10 Hardness 165

PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 171

6.11 Variability of Material Properties 171 6.12 Design/Safety Factors 173

Summary 177 Important Terms and Concepts 178 References 178

7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 180

Learning Objectives 181 7.1 Introduction 181

DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION 181

7.2 Basic Concepts 182 7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 184 7.4 Slip Systems 185 7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 187 7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline

Materials 190 7.7 Deformation by Twinning 192

MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS 193

7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 193 7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 195 7.10 Strain Hardening 196

RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH 199

7.11 Recovery 199 7.12 Recrystallization 200 7.13 Grain Growth 204

Summary 206 Equation Summary 208 List of Symbols 208 Important Terms and Concepts 208 References 208

8. Failure 209

Learning Objectives 210 8.1 Introduction 210

FRACTURE 211

8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 211

Contents • xiii

8.3 Ductile Fracture 211 8.4 Brittle Fracture 213 8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215 8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing 224

FATIGUE 229

8.7 Cyclic Stresses 229 8.8 The S–N Curve 231 8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation 235 8.10 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 237 8.11 Environmental Effects 239

CREEP 240

8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 240 8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 241 8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 244 8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 245

Summary 246 Equation Summary 248 List of Symbols 249 Important Terms and Concepts 249 References 249

9. Phase Diagrams 251

Learning Objectives 252 9.1 Introduction 252

DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 252

9.2 Solubility Limit 253 9.3 Phases 254 9.4 Microstructure 254 9.5 Phase Equilibria 254 9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase

Diagrams 255 BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 256

9.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 257 9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 259 9.9 Development of Microstructure in

Isomorphous Alloys 263 9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous

Alloys 266 9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 266 9.12 Development of Microstructure in

Eutectic Alloys 272 Materials of Importance—Lead-Free

Solders 273 9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate

Phases or Compounds 279 9.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 282 9.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 283 9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase

Diagrams 284 9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 284

THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 287

9.18 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 287

9.19 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 290

9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 298 Summary 298 Equation Summary 300 List of Symbols 301 Important Terms and Concepts 301 References 302

10. Phase Transformations: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties 303

Learning Objectives 304 10.1 Introduction 304

PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 304

10.2 Basic Concepts 304 10.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 305 10.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 316

MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN IRON–CARBON ALLOYS 317

10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 317 10.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation

Diagrams 328 10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon

Alloys 331 10.8 Tempered Martensite 335 10.9 Review of Phase Transformations and

Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 338

Materials of Importance—Shape-Memory Alloys 341 Summary 344 Equation Summary 345 List of Symbols 346 Important Terms and Concepts 346 References 346

11. Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys 347

Learning Objectives 348 11.1 Introduction 348

TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 349

11.2 Ferrous Alloys 349 11.3 Nonferrous Alloys 361 Materials of Importance—Metal Alloys

Used for Euro Coins 372

FABRICATION OF METALS 373

11.4 Forming Operations 373 11.5 Casting 375 11.6 Miscellaneous Techniques 376 11.7 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing) 378

THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 382

11.8 Annealing Processes 382 11.9 Heat Treatment of Steels 384 11.10 Precipitation Hardening 394

Summary 401 Important Terms and Concepts 403 References 403

12. Structures and Properties of Ceramics 405

Learning Objectives 406 12.1 Introduction 406

CERAMIC STRUCTURES 406

12.2 Crystal Structures 407 12.3 Silicate Ceramics 415 12.4 Carbon 419 12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics 420 12.6 Diffusion in Ionic Materials 424 12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 425

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 428

12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 429 12.9 Stress–Strain Behavior 433 12.10 Mechanisms of Plastic

Deformation 435 12.11 Miscellaneous Mechanical

Considerations 437 Summary 439 Equation Summary 440 List of Symbols 441 Important Terms and Concepts 441 References 441

13. Applications and Processing of Ceramics 442

Learning Objectives 443 13.1 Introduction 443

TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF CERAMICS 444

13.2 Glasses 444 13.3 Glass–Ceramics 444 13.4 Clay Products 446 13.5 Refractories 446 13.6 Abrasives 449 13.7 Cements 451 13.8 Ceramic Biomaterials 452

13.9 Carbons 453 13.10 Advanced Ceramics 456

FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF CERAMICS 461

13.11 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass–Ceramics 462

13.12 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 466

13.13 Powder Pressing 471 13.14 Tape Casting 473 13.15 3D Printing of Ceramic Materials 474

Summary 476 Important Terms and Concepts 478 References 478

14. Polymer Structures 479

Learning Objectives 480 14.1 Introduction 480 14.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 480 14.3 Polymer Molecules 483 14.4 The Chemistry of Polymer

Molecules 483 14.5 Molecular Weight 487 14.6 Molecular Shape 490 14.7 Molecular Structure 492 14.8 Molecular Configurations 493 14.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting

Polymers 496 14.10 Copolymers 497 14.11 Polymer Crystallinity 498 14.12 Polymer Crystals 502 14.13 Defects in Polymers 504 14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials 505

Summary 507 Equation Summary 509 List of Symbols 509 Important Terms and Concepts 510 References 510

15. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers 511

Learning Objectives 512 15.1 Introduction 512

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYMERS 512

15.2 Stress–Strain Behavior 512 15.3 Macroscopic Deformation 515 15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation 515 15.5 Fracture of Polymers 519 15.6 Miscellaneous Mechanical

Characteristics 521

xiv • Contents

MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 522

15.7 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 522

15.8 Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 524

Materials of Importance—Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 528

15.9 Deformation of Elastomers 528

CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS- TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 530

15.10 Crystallization 531 15.11 Melting 532 15.12 The Glass Transition 532 15.13 Melting and Glass Transition

Temperatures 532 15.14 Factors That Influence …

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